Thomas Chippendale, known as the “Father of European Furniture,” once said, “Worldwide, there are only three types of furniture that are identifiable by their ‘style’: Ming, Gothic, and Rococo.” Of these three, Chinese Ming furniture reigns supreme. This is not only a tribute to its craftsmanship and design, but also a recognition of the profound cultural heritage behind it.
Furniture is more than just a means of daily living. Through it, we can glimpse the lifestyle and aesthetic tastes of an era, and understand a country’s cultural traditions and customs. Understanding Chinese furniture, exemplified by Ming and Qing furniture, provides a key to understanding the allure of Chinese culture.
A Brief History of Chinese Furniture: From Sitting on the Floor to Living with the Feet Dangling
Chinese living habits have undergone two fundamental phases: sitting on the floor and living with the feet dangling. These two phases clearly define the evolution of Chinese furniture.
Living on the Floor (Before the Eastern Han Dynasty): The Era of Low-Profile Furniture
Before the Eastern Han Dynasty, people traditionally sat on the floor. Therefore, furniture was very low to accommodate this lifestyle. The oldest furniture wasn’t even what we consider wooden today. For example, every household used mats as essential furniture, while silk-woven beds, cushions, bed curtains, and quilts made up the category of ‘soft furniture.’
With the development of productivity, furniture made of copper, iron, and stone began to appear, but their use was subject to strict regulations. Initially, people used furniture as a ritual offering for gods and ancestors; it was not for the living. This privilege gradually extended to the upper ruling class, first to the emperor, then to lower-level officials, and finally to the common people. This process itself reflects the social structure and ritual system.
Before the Tang Dynasty, the concept of “bed” was much broader than it is today. It referred not only to bedding but also to any seating arrangement or platform for supporting objects. Historical records record items like “sweeping bed” (dressing table), “fire bed” (a shelf for placing a stove), and even “ink bed” (a table for placing ink cartridges), all using the word “bed” as their name, reflecting the simple functions and unadorned names of early furniture.
Transition and Change (Eastern Han Dynasty to Song Dynasty): The Introduction and Popularization of Tall Furniture
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, with the spread of Buddhism to the East, a new lifestyle emerged: sitting with the feet dangling. Indian Buddhist monks brought high-backed meditation chairs and high-legged prayer tables, and these “tall furniture” models impressed the Chinese. Interestingly, looking back at the history of furniture worldwide, Indian furniture may have originated in Egypt. High-backed chairs unearthed from ancient Egyptian pharaoh tombs predate their Chinese counterparts by over a thousand years.
However, the popularity of tall furniture in China was not without its challenges. Under the traditional emphasis on propriety, this “lofty” sitting posture was considered “unruly” and disrespectful by some. Consequently, from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Tang and Five Dynasties, society experienced a centuries-long transition period in which both low and tall furniture coexisted.
It was not until the Song Dynasty that tall furniture finally became mainstream, marking the complete shift in Chinese lifestyle from “sitting on the floor” to “living with the feet dangling.”
Strict Hierarchy in the Forbidden City: Classification and Regulation of Palace Museum Furniture
The tens of thousands of pieces of furniture in the Palace Museum’s collection represent the pinnacle of ancient Chinese furniture craftsmanship, embodying the essence of styles from across China, including the Su, Cantonese, Beijing, and Jin styles. These pieces are not merely works of art but also silent declarations of imperial power and hierarchy. Classification and regulation are extremely strict, broadly divided into three categories:
1. Highest Grade: Imperial Ceremonial Furniture
The highest-grade ceremonial furniture was displayed in core palaces along the central axis, such as the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, the Hall of Preserving Harmony, and the Palace of Heavenly Purity, as well as in imperial temples and Buddhist halls. These pieces were crafted from precious nanmu wood, inlaid with gold throughout, leaving no trace of the wood’s color. The purpose of this brilliant golden color was to demonstrate the supreme imperial and divine authority.
2. Second Tier: Gold Lacquer Furniture
This tier of furniture features a black or red lacquer base, embellished with ornate patterns using gilding techniques. The emperor and his concubines used this furniture daily; its exceptional quality reflected the royal family’s noble status.
3. Third Tier: Hardwood Furniture
Furniture crafted from rare hardwoods such as red sandalwood and huanghuali (rosewood) ranks in the third tier. This furniture was also used by the emperor and high-ranking consorts (such as the empress and the empress dowager). Even imperial concubines could not use it without special permission. The choice of materials vividly reflects the distinction between social classes.
Every Piece of Wood, Every Object of Artifact Reflects “Ritual”: Traditional Culture Hidden in Furniture
The core of Chinese traditional culture is “people,” and the most direct services for people are “food, clothing, and shelter.” Food spoils, and clothing is hard to preserve for extended periods. Only the architecture and furniture that support “housing” can serve as material carriers, transcending time and space and carrying rich cultural information.
Of all objects, furniture most embodies Chinese traditional culture. Its shape, decoration, and usage all embody concepts of hierarchy, ethics, aesthetics, and philosophy.
A particularly compelling example lies in the furnishings of the Grand Council and the Nine Ministers’ Rooms during the Qing Dynasty. These were where princes and ministers worked overnight, awaiting the next morning’s “imperial hearings.” Only officials of the third rank and above entered and exited. However, historical records reveal that these core government departments used seemingly simple “elm lacquer furniture.”
These furniture pieces were manufactured by private furniture factories, such as Long Shuncheng, using simple craftsmanship, consisting of a single layer of red lacquer applied to the elm base, devoid of any superfluous decoration. Could it be that the imperial family couldn’t afford better furniture? The answer is clearly no. Behind this lies a profound sense of hierarchical ethics.
This (Qing Dynasty) black lacquer and gilt backrest measures 153.5cm in length, 82.5cm in width, and 8.2cm in height. This backrest is beautifully designed, comfortable, and practical. The inlaid Kui pattern on the seat, back panel, and railing is made from spice tablets made of purple gold ingots. While it was customary during the Qing Dynasty to use spice tablets in prayer beads, bracelets, and fasting plaques, their widespread use on furniture was rare. This unique piece is the only one in the Palace Museum’s furniture collection and is extremely valuable.
This regulation served as a constant reminder of the ministers’ status. Even the noblest officials with the finest furniture at home used the humblest pieces in the emperor’s presence. This was to use objects to assert the emperor’s power and clarify the social hierarchy. The “Qing Palace Rules” dictated the specific furniture and room decor permitted for each rank.
The evolution of Chinese furniture tells a condensed story of the nation’s social life and ideas.
In the coming weeks, we will continue to delve deeper into the mysteries of Chinese furniture with a weekly article. This article will categorize furniture into beds, chairs, tables, cabinets, screens, and miscellaneous items. We will also delve into the cultural connotations of various decorative motifs (such as dragon and phoenix patterns), analyze the stylistic differences between Ming and Qing styles, and explore the materials and craftsmanship used.
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